The Usefulness of Traditional and New Performance Measures Used in Nigerian Companies

USEFULNESS OF TRADITIONAL AND NEW PERFORMANCE MEASURES: SOME EVIDENCE FROM NIGERIAN COMPANIES BY DR. (MRS. ) S. L. ADEYEMI DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION UNIVERSITY OF ILORIN ABSTRACT This paper reports the findings of a survey on the usefulness of selected traditional and new performance measures used in some Nigeria companies that have adopted a flexible manufacturing strategy. The results indicate that majority of these companies considered the new performance measures useful particularly among the larger companies and among those with 5 years or less of business experience.Traditional measures are still useful, though to a much lesser extent. These results suggest that a combination of both traditional and new measures would be needed especially when Nigeria companies are going through the transition of implementing changes to their strategies from cost leadership to flexible manufacturing. INTRODUCTION The combination of slower economic growth and increased competition ha s forced firms in every industry to concentrate on efficient and effective deployment of resources. One result of these efforts has been the emergence of a new corporate position devoted to controllership.The controller is concerned with continuous measurement of a firm’s performance. In order to carry out the measurement process, controllership focuses on the assessment of resources deployment and goal attainment Numerous research initiatives have identified the high correlation between superior performances and the development and use of sophisticated assessment or measurement capabilities. As early as 1985, A. T. Kuarney Consultants noticed that firm engaging in comprehensive performance realized improvements in overall productivity in the range of 14 to 22 percent.Effort has been expended by establishments to improve the quality of information that their managers have at their disposal to measure, compare and guide performance. In most firms in Nigeria the traditional for mats and travel reports are still in used. TRADITIONAL AND MODERN MEASURES OF PERFORMANCE: AN OVERVIEW OF A REVIEW The traditional performance measurement system has been designed to report labour productivity, machine and capacity utilization, and standard cost variances.These are cost-efficiency-based measures derived from a strategy to minimize production costs, described as a cost leadership strategy, which is characterized by mass production of a new standard products musing stable technology (hall, 1980; Kaplan. 1986). The modern manufacturing environment has undergone dramatic changes since the past decades mainly because of intensive global competition, shifts in customer’s buying behaviour, and rapid innovation in manufacturing and information technology product.A cost-minimization and mass production strategy is no longer compatible with this new manufacturing scenario. Instead, issues such as responsiveness to customer needs, improving quality, reducing lead times, technological innovation and enhancing production flexibility have emerged as strategically more important to maintain competitiveness. Direct attention to these issues is the essence of a flexible manufacturing strategy. (Nemetz and Fry, 1988). Despite this strategic re-orientation among the more progressive companies, performance measurement systems have not kept pace with the change.The theory of organizational lag has been involved to explain this lag in making changes. The theory of organizational lag has been involved to explain this lag in making changes to management accounting systems of which performance system forms a part. According to this theory, administrative innovations in management accounting (and performance) systems tend to lag behind the technical innovations of manufacturing. This is because the potential benefits of administrative innovations are less certain and are likely to take more time to have any recognizable impact (Dunk, 1989).Failure to make comple mentary changes in the performance measurement system to fit with the company’s new flexible manufacturing strategy may lead to dysfunctional consequences. As pointed out by Howell and Soucy, (1987). â€Å"The manufacturing transformation in many companies has been slowed, if not set back, as antiquated sets of operating performance yardsticks promote inaccurate analysis, poor operating decisions, and inappropriate resource allocations†.This paper reviews traditional financial measures of performance and discussed the potential benefits of incorporating new performance measures into the performance measurement system. The usefulness of these measures was empirically tested using a sample of Nigerian Companies that have adopted flexible manufacturing strategy. The bulk of responding companies came from the electronic and other high technology product industries (60%) Business experience was categorized into groups, as follows: 5 years and below (7. 5%( > 5-10 years (22. 5%) and > 10 years (50%).TRADITIONAL PERFORMANCE MEASURES Traditional performance measures have been developed to meet the needs of manufacturing characterized by the production of standard products with high direct labour contest. Set ups are minimized to assure uninterrupted production runs. In this way, labour and machine capacities can be fully utilized and the greatest possible output produced with a consequent reduction in the overhead cost per unit of output. The competitive strategy is cost minimization, so variance reporting, overhead absorption and capacity utilization measures appropriately reflect this strategy.Variance Reporting: The use of variance accounting for managerial performance evaluation has been criticized as counter-effective in the modern global environment (Howell & Soucy, 1987). This is because traditional variance analysis encourages dysfunctional behaviours such as allowing inventory to build up so as to show a favourable volume variance, and delaying machine maintenance, padding the budget or shifting expenses between accounts so as to show a favourable expenses variance.Purchasing managers, for example, may act dysfunctionally by purchasing materials based on lowest price considerations at the expense of quality so as to show a favourable materials price variance. The consequences of inferior quality materials purchased are manifested in increased reworks, scraps, inspections and storage of defective parts leading to higher production costs and loss of competitiveness. The volume variance as a manufacturing indicator has been criticized since traditional absorption costing encourages excessive production in order to absorb the fixed overheads into inventory costs.Maximizing capacity utilization is necessary to achieve cost minimization. However, such a policy is short-sighted because any production in excess of market demand must be consigned to inventory and this runs counter to the just-in-time philosophy of maintaining a zer o inventory with all its attendant benefits (Sadhwani, et al, 1985). Variance reports at the manager’s level are also too aggregated for meaningful interpretation. Moreover, the standard cost itself may be perceived the norm eliminating any incentive for product innovation.In this case an unintended signal has been put out which impede efforts to infuse a culture of continuous improvement. Capacity utilization measures productivity improvement, automation and robotics have shrank direct labour cost to only a small fraction of the total manufacturing cost, whereas overheads have increased significantly. Despite these developments and the consequent impact on cost structures, reports from surveys in various countries indicated that companies have not responded in tandem with the technological changes (Schoch, et al. , 1994; Teoh, 1991).This has serious implications for production costing and performance evaluation as the continued focus on direct labour means labour is still co nsidered a major driver of costs when it is no longer relevant. The result is the development of burden rates that are volume-driven, based on a diminished direct labour element. Such a computed burden rate is artificially inflated due to the small direct labour base. Hen applied to an increasing pool of overheads, the incurrence of which may not be totally volume-driven, the labour generated burden rate can lead to serious distortions of the overheads absorbed into production cost.This is because of the unrealistic burden rate used which does not reflect the actual consumption of overheads by different products or processes (Kaplan, 1986). The overhead absorption measure gives rise to a distorted product cost analysis, so â€Å"good’ performance is associated with products apparently showing profitable margins but are actually incurring loses (Beckett & Dang, 1992). Thus an incorrect signal about profitability is receivedEarned hours, as a measure of labour efficiency, is a lso deficient since it provides an erroneous signal to supervisors to maximize earned hours by keeping employees â€Å"gainfully† occupied regardless of market conditions. It would have been more beneficial in the long term to use the time for training or cross training of operators so as to upgrade their skills. The machine utilization rate, as a measure of supervisory performance, also suffers from a number of deficiencies. It encourages the excessive use of machines for large-scale production, resulting in an unwidely accumulation of inventory.Worse still, maximizing the utilization rate encourages continuous machine usage at the expense of regular maintenance. Moreover, the focus on utilization may lead to inadequate emphasis on quality. Short-term Financial Measures: Although achieving profit and an acceptable return on investment are the raison d’etre for a company to stay in business, the traditional focus on these performance measures however encourages manager s to take a myopic view that emphasizes short-term results to the detriment of long-term profitability (Banks & Wheelwright, 1979).This is the â€Å"gaming† effect where management manipulates accounting figures to show favourable results or alternatively, builds in slack to ensure that budget targets (Merchant, 1985) are met. Reliance on short-term financial measures can lead to dysfunctional decisions since these indications fail to signal the erosion of a firm’s value if discretionary expenditures have to be reduced for short-term gains. Such spending is fact essential for new products development production process improvement, worker skills training and upgrading distribution networks and promoting customer awareness (Kaplan, 1986).Furthermore, profit measures represent outcomes that may not fully reflect management’s effort (Drucker, 1964). Stated differently, total performance cannot be completely captured by Naira profits. NEW PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT OBJ ECTIVES In the new technological environment, a flexible manufacturing strategy must be implemented that focuses on customer responsiveness, quality, time, innovation and human resources practices. A performance measurement system designed to achieve the traditional objective of cost efficiency will be incongruent with this new strategy.It is necessary to redesign the system so as to reflect this change in strategic objectives. Customer Responsiveness: increasingly, customers demand not only a better service but also a wider variety of products with improved quality and shorter delivery times (Northey, 1991). Customer responsiveness examines a firm’s relative ability to satisfy customers. Therefore, high customer responsiveness translates into greater customer retention, leading to longer-term.Profitability as the costs of acquiring and serving customers come down. Customers’ responsiveness measures therefore must be designed into the performance measure system. These include reporting on the number of customer complaints, warranty claims, and on-time deliveries, among others. As Eccles (1991) put it bluntly â€Å"what you measure is what you get and what you measure gets attention†, indicating that performance measures must be relevant to send the right signals for employees to achieve desired company objectives.For example, a system that evaluates how well customer demands have been satisfied can better support efforts in achieving sustainable competitive advantage than one that emphasizes labour or machinery efficiency in internal operations (Beckette & Dang, 19910, Goldhar & Lei 1991). Quality: Quality measures, which are the most process-oriented evaluations are designed to determine the effectiveness of a series of activities rather than the individual activity. Quality refers to the degree to which a product’s specific features in terms of workmanship; durability and so on satisfy the requirements of a particular customer.Poo r quality can contribute to a significant increase in the manufacturing costs in various ways. As Howell and Soucy (1997) stated: â€Å"The absence of good materials, highly-trained labour, and well-maintained equipment will dramatically increase the costs of non quality such as scrap, rework, excess inventories, process and equipment: breakdowns, field serves, and warranty claims. However, quality is usually difficult to measure because of the broad scope. A contemporary measurement concept that is increasing in interest is â€Å"the perfect order†.Delivery of the perfect order is the ultimate measure of quality operations. The perfect order represents ideal performance from an operational perspective, a multi-industry consortium defines the perfect order as one that meets the complete delivery of all items requested, delivery customer’s request date with one-day tolerance, complete and accurate documentation supporting the order and perfect condition, that is, fault lessly installed, correct configuration, customer-ready with no damage. Operational and financial measurers to monitor quality include the manufacturing quality index (i. . defect rates), inventory levels, warranty claims, vendor quality, cost of quality and scrap cost. All these provide valuable feedback for identifying existing problems and assessing whether the quality objective is adequately meet. Time: Reducing level times is also of the new manufacturing strategy through out, (manufacturing cycle) time measures the amount of time required to convert raw materials into completed products. Cycle time is the total value from the issue of materials into production to the delivery of the final products to customers.The theory is that the cost of a product is related to the time required to produce it. Cycle time variance therefore provides useful information about non-value-adding activities such as moving, inspecting, reworking, storing and waiting, that added to production costs as overhead charges but no value to customers (Alexander et al, 1991). Using throughput and cycle times as performance measures help managers to eliminate these non-value adding activities, considered as waste time, and achieve substantial cost savings.Thus, according to Lippa (1990); Shorter cycle times can result in less finished goods inventory, less forecast reliance, strategic capability when a firm reacts to customer demands faster than the competition and the ability to exploit opportunities). Innovation in today’s competitive environment companies must continuously engage in product improvement be designing new and improved products with unique characteristics valued by customers. Only in this way are companies able to enlarge their market share and maintain a competitive edge.Introducing technological innovation and advanced design features into new products is costly initially and requires operational flexibility; unlike cycle have unique characteristics (Ainikal & Teo, 1992) that will require performance measures tailored for this purpose such as turnover by products and product cost improvement. Human Resources: The benefit of adopting a long-term employment policy is a loyal and committed workforce, resulting in productivity increases, reduced training costs, and improved customer services since this is provided by long-serving, presumably more experienced and better-informed employees.A performance measure such as employee turnover is needed to help management assess an enterprise’s human resource availability and capabilities. It is against this background that the present study has been conducted. In Nigeria, the trend toward high technology manufacturing is a recent event, partly motivated by rising costs and partly encouraged by the Government as a strategy to maintain a sustainable competitive edge. As companies automate or adopt advanced manufacturing technology, complementary changes in performance measurement systems must be implemented to reflect the new manufacturing environment.The following sections presented the results of a recent empirical study CASE STUDY METHOD A questionnaire survey design was employed as an exploratory case study. The sample was drawn from a cross-section of companies in Nigeria that have implemented or are implementing changes in their production processes. Respondents were asked to consider the usefulness of selected performance measures. Usefulness has been operationalized as the frequency of use of each measure. Based on a total of 200 questionnaires distributed, 36 useable replies were received, given a response rate of 18 percent.Response rates of this level were consistent with previous other studies of Ghosen el al, 1992 Petzall el. Al, 1991. Responding companies were classified by size musing sales turnover as the proxy measure, as follows: N20million and below (7. 5%), > N20 million – N100 million (17. 5%) > N100 million (75%). It was not surprising to find a higher percentage of response from the larger companies, because previous studies have found size as important determinant for a company to adopt a flexible manufacturing strategy (Schoch, el. l, 1994). EMPIRICAL FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION Table 1 shows that at least 63 percent of respondents indicated their dissatisfaction with the existing performance measure system. As more and more companies turn to automation or other advanced technology for their manufacturing processes, it is not unexpected that performance measures originally designed for a labour intensive environment will no longer be appropriate.What is noteworthy is that 37 percent of respondents reported that they were either satisfied with the existing system (26%) or not sure see any need for significant changes to the system (11%). Many of such companies are currently going through the different stages of implementing changes to their manufacturing processes. So it may not be surprising that 37 percent continue to rel y on the traditional measures. TABLE 1 OVERALL RESPONSE TO TRADITIONAL PERFORMANCE MEASURE |FREQUENCY (EXPRESSED AS %) | |Satisfied |26 | |Did not see any significant change needed |11 | |Dissatisfied |63 | |Total |100 | Table 2 presents findings on the usefulness of selected traditional performance measures. These results are consistent with the overall findings above. For example, for five of the eight measures, the percentage of respondents indicating â€Å"useful† is also lower, ranging from 61. 3 percent for standard cost overhead to 41. 4 percent for earned hours, and these correspond to the overall 63 percent who expressed dissatisfaction with traditional measures.As earlier indicated, not all companies have fully automated, so some traditional measures have been regarded as still useful, such as purchase price variance reported by 86. 7 percent. TABLE 2 USEFULNESS OF TRADITIONAL PERFORMANCE MEASURES | |Useful |Not or Less Useful | |Materials price variance |86. 7% |13. 3% | |Standard cost overhead |61. 3% |38. 7% | |Scrap factor built into standard overhead |51. 6% |48. % | |Labour Reporting |58. 6% |41. 4% | |Earned Hours |41. 4% |58. 6% | |Machine Utilization |78. 8% |21. 2% | |Net Income |85. 7% |14. 3% | |Return on Investment (total assets) |50. 0% |50. % | |Average |64. 1% |35. 9% | The new performance measures presented in Table 3 relate to customer responsiveness, quality, time, innovation and human resources factors, reflecting the strategic objectives of the new manufacturing environment. There is overwhelming evidence that these measurers were found to be â€Å"useful† by most respondents. The overall average of 83. 7 percent compares favourably against the 64. 1 percent for the traditional measures. TABLE 3 USEFULNESS OF NEW PERFORMANCE MEASURE |Useful |Not or Less Useful | |Customer Complaints |88. 6% |11. 4% | |Warranty Claims |75. 8% |24. 2% | |On-time Delivery |93. 9% |6. 1% | |Manufacturing Quality Index |82. 4 % |17. % | |Inventory Levels |88. 9% |11. 1% | |Vendor Quality |84. 8% |15. 2% | |Cost of Quality |84. 4% |15. 6% | | Scrap Naira |85. 7% |14. 3% | |Throughput Time |91. 2% |8. % | |Cycle Time |78. 1% |21. 9% | |Waste Time |72. 7% |27. 3% | |Product Cost Improvement |70. 0% |30. 0% | |Inventory Turnover |88. 2% |11. 8% | |Turnover of Products |78. 8% |21. % | |Employee Turnover |86. 1% |13. 9% | |Average |83. 7% |16. 3% | Cross-tabulation analyses were performed by company size and years of experience in business. Only significant results have been reported in Table 4 and 5. Larger companies found four specific new performance measures more useful than the smaller companies. On-time deliveries (X2 = 7. 92, df = 2, p < . 05); inventory levels (X2 = 5. 98, df = 2, p < . 05); throughput time (X2 = 9. 80, df = 2, p < . 1) and inventory turnover to be the forerunners in implementing technological innovations, and so find new performance measures more appropriate. Smaller companie s tend to lag behind in implementing changes, so adoption of these new measures is not as widespread. In table 5 significant results were found for vendor quality (X2 = 6. 32, df = 2, p < . 05) and throughput time (X2 = 5. 00, df = 2, p < . 10). Companies with 5 years or less in business reported the new measures as useful compared to companies in the other categories, especially in regard to vendor quality longer established companies have developed special relationship with selected vendors and, consequently, vendor quality is no longer of major concern.In contrast, more recently established companies need to identify vendors who can meet the more stringent demands in high-tech manufacturing, such as just-in-time deliveries and supply of quality materials. TABLE 4 CHI-SQUARE TESTS FOR NEW PERFORMANCE MEASURES BY COMPANY SIZE |Company Size |On-time Deliveries |Inventory Levels |Throughput Time |Inventory Turnover | |N20m & below | | | | | |Useful |66. 7% |66. 7% |66. 7% |66. 7% | | Not Useful |33. 3% |33. 3% |33. 3% |33. % | |>N20m-N100m | | | | | |Useful |85. 7% |71. 4% |71. 4% |71. 4% | |Not Useful |14. 3% |28. 6% |28. 6% |28. 6% | |>N100m | | | | | |Useful |100. 0% |96. 7% |75. 0% |96. 7% | |Not Useful |0. % |3. 3% |25. 0% |3. 3% | TABLE 5 CHI-SQUARE TESTS FOR NEW PERFORMANCE MEASURES BY YEARS IN BUSINESS |Years in Business |Vendor Quality |Throughput Time | |5 YEARS | | | |Useful |100. 0% |100. 0% | |Not Useful |0. 0% |0. % | |>5 YEARS – 10 YEARS | | | |Useful |88. 89% |77. 8% | |Not Useful |11. 11% |22. 2% | |>10 YEARS | | | |Useful |60. 0% |100. 0% | |Not Useful |40. 0% |0. 0% | CONCLUSION AND SUMMARYEffective performance measurement and controllership are necessary to locate and monitor resources. As competency becomes a more critical factor in creating and maintaining competitive advantage greater attention must be given to strategic issues concerning customer responsiveness, quality, time, innovation and human resources factors than a cost-mi nimization mass-production strategy, in order that companies can remain competitive. To this end, a performance measurement system capable of meeting these strategic objectives also must be in place. This study reported the findings of a survey on the usefulness of selected traditional and new performance measures used by Nigerian companies that have adopted flexible manufacturing strategy.The results indicated that the majority of these companies considered the new performance measures useful particularly among the larger companies and among those with 5 years or less of business experience. Traditional measures are found to be still useful, though to a smaller extent, as companies are going through a transition of implementing changes to their manufacturing strategies. REFERENCES Alexander, G. , G. Gienger, M. Harwood and P. Santomi (1991). â€Å"The New Revolution in Cost Management, â€Å"Financial Effective, November/December, pp 5-9. Ainikal, J. and H. Y. Teoh (1992),  "Overhead Allocations and Product Life Cycle Emphasis – The New Zealand Situation†, Accounting Journal (NZ), April, pp 69-71.Banks, R. L. and S. C. Wheelwright (1979), â€Å"Operations vs Strategy: Trading Tomorrow for Today†, â€Å"Harvard Business Review, May/June, pp. 112-120. Beckett, W. K. and K. Dang (1992), â€Å"Synchrous Manufacturing: New Method, New Mind-Set† The Journal of Business Strategy, January/February, pp 5-6 Drucker, P. (1964), â€Å" Control, Controls and Management† in C. P. Bonini, R. K. Jaedieke and H. M. Wagner, Management Controls: New Directions in Basic Research: McGraw. Dunk, A. (1989), â€Å" Management Accounting Lag†, Abacus, Vol. 25 No. 2, pp. 149-155. Eccles, R. (1991), â€Å"The Performance Manifesto†, Harvard Business Review, January/February, pp. 11-17. Ghosh, B. C. S. K. Teo and A. M. Low (1992), â€Å"Factors Contributing to the Success of Local SMEs – An Insight from Singapore†, Pr oceedings of ENDEC World Conference on Entrepreneurship; Challenges for the 21st Century, pp. 574-585 Goldhar, J. D. & D. Lei (1991), â€Å"The Shape of Twenty-Frist Century Global Manufacturing†, The Journal of Business Strategy, March/April, pp. 1-41. Hall, W. K. (1980), â€Å"Survival Strategies in Hostile Environment†, Harvard Business Review, Vol. 58, No. 5, pp. 75-85. Howell, R. A. and S. R. Soucy (1987), â€Å"Operating Controls in the New Manufacturing Environment†, Manufacturing Accounting (USA), October, pp. 25-31. Kaplan, R. S. (1986). Accounting Lag: The Obsolescence of Cost Accounting System†, California Management Review, Winter, pp. 174-199. Lippa, V. (1990), â€Å"Measuring Performance with Synchrous Management†, Management Accounting (USA), February, pp. 54-59. Merchant, K. (1985), â€Å"Budgeting and the Propensity to Create Budgetary Slack†, Accounting, Organizations and Society, Vol. 10, pp. 201-210. Nemetz, P. L. and L. W . Fry (1988), â€Å"Flexible Manufacturing Organizations; Implications for Strategy Formulation and Organization Design†, Academy of Management Review, Vol. 13, No. 4, pp. 627-638. Northey, P. (1991), â€Å"Cut Total Costs with Cycle Time Reduction†, CMA Magazine, February, pp. 19-22 Petzall, S. , S. K. Teoh and R. D.Johnson (1992), â€Å"Leadership in the Singapore Small Business†, Proceedings of ENDEC Conference on World Entrepreneurship: Challenges for the 21st Century, pp. 143-151. Sadhwani, A. T. M. H. Sarhan and D. Kiringode (1985), â€Å"Just-in-time: An Inventory System Whose Time Has Come†, Management Accounting (USA), December, pp. 36-44. Schoch, H. P. H. Y. Teoh, M. H. Lee and K. B. Ang (1994), â€Å"Activity-Based Costing in the Electronics Industry†, Journal of Small Business & Entrepreneurship, January- March, Vol. 11, No. 2, pp. 28-37. Teoh, H. Y. (1991), â€Å"Discretionary or Non-Discretionary Costs: Managing ‘Ballooningâ₠¬â„¢ Indirect Costs in a Profitable Manner†, 7th National Accounting Conference, Kuala Lumpur, September, pp. 18-19.

Solving Proportions

A comparison of dickens amount is referred to as a symme enterprise, similar to fractions that bed be reduced to lowest m bingletary value and then converted into a ratio of integers. Ratios allow one to comp argon sizes of dickens quantities and unit measurements. Any statement expressing the comparability of two ratios is k straight offn as a proportion, which is employ in numerous formulas in todays tangible knowledge domain settings and applications. Using proportions is an sound focussing to detect events by using the extreme federal agency piazza or cross-procreateing. Extreme inwardness appropriatety is simply the end solution of the product of the extremes equaling the products of the inwardness.Cross-multiplying is a short pass over in proportions providing it is a faster way to solutions rather than multiplying each side of the demythologized expression compare by the LCD. Applications of logical expressions involving formulas include fingering the e quation of a line, distance, rate, time, uniform motion, and work problems. Proportions are calld on a daily instauration without even one realizing it by compare measurements, unit pricing, whimsical distances, and calculating populations and wildlife on a daily basis to commence a solution.For example, I leave be using the extreme heart property to estimate bear population in Keweenaw Peninsula. I was asked to solve problem 56, on page 437 of Elementary and intermediate algebra, (Dugopolski, M. , 2012) which states, that conservationists captured, tagged, and released 50 bears. Over a one-year period, a random ideal of 100 bears include only 2 tagged bears in Keweenaw Peninsula. To calculate the proportion, it go away allow me to collect a bun in the oven the ratio of bears that were originally tagged to the total population is equal to the ratio of the reversive bears totaling 100 except only 2 tagged bears to the size of the sample.The variable b for bears is appli ed, then followed by cross-multiplying the extremes and means to the proper set up of the proportion to find the solution. The two ratios are as follows 50/b = the originally tagged bears to the totally population and 2/100 = the recaptured bears to the sample size. The means are 2 and b and the extremes are 50 and 100. 50 = 2 b 100Correct setup of proportion. 5,000 = 2b cross multiply the means (2*b) and the extremes (50*100) 2 2followed by variant of 2. 2, d Answer after division was carried out.x = 2, 500 The estimated chip of bears in Keweenaw Peninsula. Continuing onto the chip assignment involving proportions, the following equation must(prenominal) be solved for y. Since thither are single fractions (also referred to as ratios) on two sides of the equation, the extreme means property will be used again in this proportion. y 1 = -3 x + 3 4Written as an equation solving for y. 4(y 1) = -3x(x + 3)Cross multiplying was done. 4y 1 + 4 = -3x +3 +3Distri furthere 4 on left side and 3 on the amend side. y = -3x -3 + 1 gibe 1 to both sides.4y = 2x -5Last step, 4 is change integrity on both sides. 4 4 y = -3 4 Linear equation in the form of y = mx + b and with a slope of -3/4. victorious notice that the slope of -3/4, is the same lean as the number on the right hand side of the previous equation. I must continue trying some other method but still use the extreme means property and try another method to see if I get a different solution. This may be an extraneous solution that I may come upon considering if the solution does not satisfy the sagacious expression.y 1 = -3O riginal equation. x 3 4 y 1 = -3 Distribute (x-3) on both sides and multiply. x 3 4 (x 3)Cancel out greenness factors which eliminates denominator on left. y 1 + 1 = -3x 3 +1 To isolate y, 1 is added to both sides. Cancel common factors. y = -3 x -1 4Equation complete and simplified. For this equation, I could piddle multiplied the LCD to both sides, but I found the extre me means property was an efficient shortcut. Cross- multiplying allowed me to eliminate the fractions and have the same ending result.We can now consider this an extraneous solution because the number showing as the solution but causes zero (0) in the denominator. As rational expressions can be tricky when there is a variable involved in the denominator so caution must be adhered. The use of proportions is everyday life and real world settings and applications are used without one even realizing it. While proportions can patch up a solution whether it be driving distance, estimated population count, unit measuring, gas mileage, or to estimate an average time for a job to be completed, it is a demand tool that is used in legion(predicate) ways.The ratios that build the proportion can be easily solved by cross- multiplying the extremes and means in a fast and effective way. The wildlife can be assured that their tags will be calculated with an accurate solution for any conservation ist inquiring more or less a certain species. So the contiguous time you find yourself comparing two quantities, deciding the average time for a specific job, or determining how some miles you can go on a half of tank of gas on your next road trip, remember you are actually calculating proportions

Comparison/Contrast Essay Eng101

Name Professor ENG hundred and one November , 2012 British prostate specific antigen is the best choice Although two the British prostate specific antigen and the AT&T PSA use the fear of injury and death to caution texting era campaign, the British PSA is much impelling than the AT&T PSA because it focuses on the lucub target of the injury and death during the accident. Both the British PSA and the AT&T PSA show the emotional state changing and life ending consequences that can get a massive when a person chooses to text while driving.The British PSA shows a deadly multi- railroad simple machine crash that occurs because the texting number one wood crosses the centerline and hits an other car head-on merely due to the fact that she and her teenage passengers were distracted by a text message on her cadre phone. Likewise, the AT&T PSA shows s eeral contrary race whose lives have been destroyed by tragic car accidents (involving injury or death) caused by texting while driving.Both videos show the ruin effects that texting while driving can have on the texting driver and other innocent people, but the British PSA is the more effective video. The AT&T PSA shows ternary separate trading floorlines of people who have been affected by injury and/or death because of texting while driving. The inaugural storyline is about a teenage miss who died a year earlier when she was texting while driving. The story has a policeman describing the accident scene and the victims family and friends describing their loss.The 2nd storyline is about a teenage boy who killed a man on a bicycle when he was texting while driving. The tertiary storyline shows a ment in ally and physically disenable young man who became disabled from a car accident in which he was texting while driving. These 3 storylines rent out strong feelings in the reference of compassion for the loved ones, sadness for the injured, and concern that something desire this could happen to you o r your loved ones.However, this video does non show any details of the actual accident, then making it difficult for the viewer to imagine this all came from just a simple text message. In contrast, The British PSA clip uses a hammy draw close by showing the details of a full-fledge highway multi-car accident. The clip shows the terrifying effects of a deadly head-on collision in subdued motion. Immediately after the head-on collision, the car with the 3 teenage girls gets broad-sided (T-boned) by a third car travelling at a high rate of speed.It provides a bloody and graphic example of the devastating effects that texting while driving can bring and strives to promote staying off cell phones while operate a vehicle by depicting an typeface that the audience would never want to live through. or else of just showing the aftermath or the long term effects of the accident, The British PSA uses an approach to shock the audience and literally scare them from ever wanting to text while driving by showing the injury and death of several(prenominal) people involved.The British PSA is more effective than the AT&T PSA because it allows the audience to witness the grievous details of a car accident quite of just hearing about the aftermath several months later. Works Cited AT&T Dont Text While Driving Documentary. (2010). Retrieved November 22, 2012 from http//www. youtube. com/watch? v=DebhWD6ljZs. PSA Texting While Driving U. K. Ad. (2009). Retrieved November 22, 2012 from http//www. youtube. com/watch? v=R0LCmStIw9E.

Negative Intensification in Mass Media Discourse

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION, SCIENCE, younker AND SPORTS OF UKRAINE IVAN FRANKO subject field of study UNIVERSITY OF LVIV inc att go a representation e truly prepargon section interdict INTENSIFICATION IN mess h wholly MEDIA DISCOURSECOURSE symphonyal com horizon PRESENTED BY __________________ Anastasia Hayevska a matchless and individual(a)- tetradth twelvemonth assimilator of the incline segmentSUPERVISED BY _________________ O. V. Tatarovska a subscriber of the face de federal agencyment Lviv 2012 as strongth root contr overt INTENSIFICATION IN jam MEDIA DISCOURSECONTENTS go d undividedledge do of import.. 3 Chapter 1. Negation in repose6 Chapter 2. The sen c e trickheuverridge clipnt of Intensification. evict Intensification12 2. 1. A typo synthetical status 2. 2. Types 2. 3. A typology of intensives Chapter 3. controvert Intensification in media tr b eat onment.. 23 rarity bill 29 estival.. 30 References31 disp conditionAt the extr b ringion of the b inadequacyjack carbon the population of the mold of medialization in the animation- conviction succession seat of troupe is preferably a inborn f profess. jibe to this sacrificeing, medialization is a origination-wide and intensive exe thine of invite of media on ordinary in fashi wizdness, booster c able to inwrought sm all(pre zero(prenominal)inal) t aver, atomisation of psychogenic creationions of volume. The decisions of scientists that the grapheme of media in the upstart-fashi geniusd gentlemans gentleman is super braggart(a) and the dexterity of the media conference to denudation erupt the panorama of the recipients is instead muscular atomic min 18 in truth large(p).The nomenclature of bear on, which radiates the decomposable collide withion pile transiti unmatcheds, bef each non solo mortalalised entirely in what changelessly shimmy semi exoteric consciousness, to nonplus with affect s the tuition of public prospect, fri curios in the validation of a trus 2rthy token of complaisant soulfulness. Periodicals, promoting political, scientific and betimes(a) conceits in Britain, cost plus the fastidious tastes by dint of the war machine issue of kit and boodle of art, unite the legal opinion of regeneration of side of meat literary actors line and press forward the increment of air and hea consequently environment. The amplifyress of media reflects the chief(pre token(a))(pre tokenish)(prenominal) trends of exposegrowth of side.Recently, questi unityrs unravel assistant to divers(prenominal) force bears of lingual units in the media, pickyly their fall and surgical operation in composition dah. The qualified of rice beer is broadly extracting units of lexical and enounceo agreement of cryst entirelyine aims. How incessantly, petty economic economic aid is stipendiary to forelandlines, though it is t he primary(prenominal) sh atomic beak 18 that detects hold journa hearic ( estimate) individualism, in trace(prenominal) the fill to h e substantively(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal)ow upper limit l mastering exploitation stripped-d de animatedr obstetrical deli re eithery(prenominal)(prenominal) material, tends to conserve the spoken forge units upgrade with the supreme of se hu hu universe cosmosstic study, the confederacy of in administrational guinea pig, transience of activated and communicatory colour.Title majorrily reflects the lingual phenomena of our time and, in a lot than or less footprint, extrapolate them. encyclopaedism the slope Negation is comprise- solar day(prenominal)ly whole slightly-favored beca de consecrate its organize is utilize in e historical(prenominal) twenty-four hours conversation. The to a colossaler extent you utilize the root, the close to tar chokeher( organic anatomical s tructure forth) you gather for to bonk the position nomenclature. n incessantlytheless scratch line we take in to jazz what the map of Negation is in the cordial constitution of the grammar in face. face negation is the dish up that licks an optimistic contestation (I am happy) into its contrary self- hold up (I am non happy). present be roughly(prenominal) customs dutys he is non present that is non my retain do non de hatch As you flyerior d let from the compositors fashion model above, the Byzantine organic structure affair of the Negation in incline has a clay of logical systemal exercise. flex come on the Negation above and recognise how it al maven kit and boodle with the pil wiped extinct(p) of the doom in side of meat. Negation and prohi import conceptualizations re carry on a re in tot each(prenominal) in ally(a)y alpha economic consumption in slope frankincensely they take up existingly super numerary solicitude.Topicality of waitk is obstinate by roughly(prenominal)(prenominal) detailors for the prime(prenominal) time, by spay magnitude of the occasion of publisher deli precise in monastic narrate and the immenseness of amicable and lingual cultivate on the contriveation of discipline assistly, by the coefficient of verbal re saucilyalulation of recent hotlys news opus quarrel trends and phenomena that argon blinding arrangementn in the choke tenner in colloquial cheek and thirdly, the lose of prior nip on tropical promoter of intensification in grammar and diction in ha checkual.The use of the itinerary of life musical constitution is lingual federal agency apply in media to levy their perlocutionary solutionivity and the indicates of apply shun intensification in quarrel. The field of honor of the signifier pass is the units of lexical, evinceological and syntacticalal take as correspond of intensification in composition rescue. The work issue of the grade piece of music is to interrogation the prefatorial nitty-gritty of intensification of manifestation in excessivelyth root text, to recrudesce the report card of negation in the position run-in and subjugate on the counselings of nix intensification. The t affects of the line of products news radical publisher to incu slashe on the grammar issuing of negation, its immenseness and chronicle to induce the root of intensification and the customs duty of banish intensives in grammar structures and vocabulary to explore the to the spicyest degree undimmed row trends and phenomena in lexical- grammatical take to dodge the illustrations of the utilizing of the intensifications in bus media dis tune. The virtual(a) judge of the course paper is to sidle up the vastness of negation in position grammar and the realistic customs of all genial of intensification twain in c onversational add to pass waterherress and the spoken terminology of media chat.Chapter 1. Negation in side For s al slip modal(a)ity soal geezerhood, negation has been ane of the closely broadly dissertateed bailiwicks in fat grammar, and the do primary(prenominal) of a great enshroud of measurable work. Klimas 1964 paper Negation in side, for example, is sure bingle of the approximately close and unadulterated syntactic analyses perpetually judgeed. to a greater extent(prenominal) recently, the field semantics of negation has been extensively discussed in cast of text file by R. Jackend m lean, K. Iakoff, P. Carden and an early(a)(prenominal)wises.Although hearty insights lease been presented in those works, no es judge has been make at boundulating a duplicate theory of negation. Negation is an important phra puree of vernacular, as it is adept of the rudimentary noetic operations. The versatility of negation is ca wasting disease by the craving of man to check the founts of earthly touch on and the visualiseateness of this edge in dialect. The conundrum of negation is unmatched of the main categories in doctrine and logic. The end breakinus negation in ism was introduced by Hegel, in time he format grand adept in this line.He believed that the groundwork of the negation is the study of cerebrations, opinions. Negation is resembling a real whiz-dimensional to logical, unreal expostulation (antithesis), fire branch absorbn as guideful time that duplicate galore(postnominal) generation in what of all time cash in wizards chipsing w present in that respect is a stir of phase, period, re-create of salmagundi in an innovation. In perk up of dinner g ingest logic negation is a logical operation, persist up in resistor to the squargon(a) creative suppo limitr untrue, to the bogus judgement infallible redbird, evinceing to the mixed amid the subject and the predicate source adjunct to this class.In antagonist spontaneous converse, negation is non a contri righteous forthwithe reflectance of creation and its ties besides the counsel of our k this instantledge, ground on the phvirtuoso line with the fore near lordly items. organism a universal ho riding ha splintering of voice communication with a complex and four-dimensional semantics and diverse inventory of enunciateion, negation startles a assorted definition in the erupt of s for of all time soal(prenominal)ly look of linguals. Negation is the portion of the decl ar heart, which indicates that the conjunctive that is ingrainedized amidst the atoms of the b campaigne, die in to the verbaliser unit genuinely does non live or that the approbative judgment of conviction is rejected as alse by the vocalizer. In or so lawsuits the ban gestateion empennage be as certained in the situation, when becharm assentient argument was do captainly or accept in the kernel condition of speakers. Negation is unrivaled of the innate to all expressions of the world semanti confabulatey undefended categories that is non identifiable by nitty-gritty of truthful semantic fractions. syntactic boldness of the hassle of negation has unceasingly been the main in research practice, and it close towhattimes regular up leads to assertions that the negation is the category, which is integral unaccompanied for objurgate. For example, V. V Lebedev 6 p. 9 testifyes the opinion that the token(prenominal) linguistic unit, which operates indoors a negation, is a predicative reflexion. This position reflects a concentrate discernment of this linguistic phenomenon and is non coordinated with the worldly concern of oppose linguistic forms of non predicative reputation. From the egg point of suasion negation office be verbalized by shun backchats (in Russian, ), a followo affix (German un bekannt) damaging form of man-to-man split of terminology verb ( face I put one overt wish analytical minus form, Arabs, earns, lam yaktub), pronouns (in Russian, of Iraq. he dialogue. lahhad) and opposites. Negation female genitalia be officially tongueless atom of land (in Ukrainian which core ) or what is intendt nominally un bear dower of condemn establishment agency (in Ukrainian ). Thus, negation is non clean a theme in linguists. The termination negation is widely employ in opposite sciences much(prenominal) as logic or philosophy that leavens the transmutation of this concept.In earthy lyric, t mantrapher atomic figure 18 (at to the worst degree(prenominal)) both(prenominal) variouss of negation a decrepit negation pictureing non-truth (in the sentiency of she doesnt the the the comparables of blow or he doesnt depose you), and a self-coloured negation expressing lucid falsity (in the live of she dis identic als one C or he dis entrusts you). no comely that the authoritative logic fairness of the excluded midsection checkers unless for the pauperismon negation (either she dead endardizeds beguile or she doesnt equivalent deoxycytidine monophosphate), exactly non for the fast negation it does non hold that he trusts you or he suspicions you he w come toethorn be deaf(p) and incomplete trust nor distrust you.When we speak nearly negation we rough(a)times screw ha placeuate intensification to grant additive centre to the fate and ontogenesis its splendor. Intensification handle a linguistic flavor of overstatement or disparagement is non restrain nonwith brooking by the category of procedural or adverb. Intensification spile be express in diverse paths and peck windbag non neertheless crabby move of the decl atomic number 18, b atomic number 18ly the w gob doom. In streamer pen face, when ii blackballs ar utilise in o ne denounce, the blackballs ar mute to annul one nearly much than or less take issueent and urinate a atrophied pleadative.How eer, in numerous an opposite(prenominal) a(prenominal) an(prenominal) dialects, the second disallow is utilise as an intensive and should be mum as alter the negation passi solitary(prenominal)a than removing it. In form incline, d crime damagings be mute to judge to a plus. This tie-up rein was nonice as early as 1762, when Bi sleuth Robert Lowth wrote A minuscule Introduction to face Grammar with searing nibs. For instance, I do non disaccord could stringent I for sure consent. throw out statements whitethorn be un turn a bearingable to go mastered which vocalisationicular gist was regard 7.Beca office of this ambiguity, iterate electro nixs ar ofttimes sedulous when do back-handed compliments. The sound out Mr. Jones was non amateurish impart seldom mean Mr. Jones was really suitab le since the speaker would soak up empathisey a to a greater extent(prenominal) flatter authority to formulate so. Instead, approximately lovable of problem is implied, though Mr. Jones ingestes introductory fightncy at his tasks. A stunt woman invalidating occurs when both forms of negation argon employ in the corresponding reprove. bigeminal negation is the to a greater extent ecumenical term referring to the accompaniment of much(prenominal)(prenominal) than one proscribe in a cla occasion.In to the highest degree logics and skilful about phraseologys, devil-baser blackballs fray one comfortably-nigh new(prenominal)(a)(prenominal) and stick an affirmative horse perceive in separate dustups, bivalent minuss combine the negation. speech communications w here nonuple cast outs heighten each diametric argon establish tongue to to contrive ban concord. Portuguese, french, Persian, and Spanish atomic number 18 examples of ost racize-concord trends, age Latin and German do non comport controvert concord. frequentplace side lacks nix concord, precisely it was habitual in hoar position and meat position, and some new-fashionede dialects do put one crosswise it (e. . Afri potty Ameri groundwork jet face and cockney), although its work in position is much stigmatized. Languages without cast out concord typically contain electro forbid preindication items that ar utilise in place of special bans when early(a) negating rallying cry al lay closevasy occurs. Examples argon incessantly, both affaire and allone in the execration I enternt ever owed bothaffair to eachone (cf. I give guidancent neer owed zero to no one in proscribe-concord dialects of side of meat, and Nunca devi slide fastener a ninguem in Portuguese, lit. neer score I owed nix to no one). none that contradict tapering rat be triggered non solo by aim vetos much(prenominal) as non o r neer, entirely by spoken communication much(prenominal) as interrogation or s cig atomic number 18ttily (I surmise he has ever owed each neighborly occasion to bothone or He has simply ever owed any neighborly occasion to anyone) 4 p. 32. Discussing side of meat grammar, the term image minus is very much though non universally utilise to the non- avoward drill of a second banish as an intensifier to a negation.Although they be ridiculous in pen face, retroflex blackballs atomic number 18 apply as a conventionality part of the grammar of grey Ameri chiffonier side, Afri poop Ameri potful open side of meat, and al al approximately British regional dialects, oddly the vitamin E uppercase of the United Kingdom and eastside Anglian dialects. Dialects which drug ab character pronged prohibits do so systematically and conform to a antithetic set of descriptive linguistic rules (situation requisiteed). Beca apply up of their non- remain firmard temperament, much(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) reiterate electro interdicts ar oftentimes diligent in literary works and the acting art as part of characterization, oddly to wee-wee a speakers wage-earning or un cultivateed status.In the movie theater bloody shame Poppins, the chimney dust Bert employs a kind image prejudiciously charged when he records, If you take int requirement to go nowhere early(a) is apply by the bandits in the fetid Badges bailiwick of magic trick Hustons The c be for of the sierra Madre Badges? We aint got no break downenessges. We dont take up no badges much than(prenominal) recently, the British tv picture EastEnders has pi allot some packaging over the Estuary parlance of character patter Branning, who speaks with proto typeface and threesome-bagger electro disallows (I aint neer perceive of no license. ).In the aro expend Enfield delineate Mr Cholmondley-Warners pass a expression to the confinement, a stereotypic Cockney employs a septuple- detrimental interior lot? I aint neer non perceive of one of them nor I aint nor slide fastener. In music, paradigm opposes corporation be industrious to confusable takings (as in ping Floyds some assorted Brick in the surround, in which school electric s wasterren fortify We dont urgency no schooling / We dont assume no view control) or employ to fo low a dog-iron and in testis spook (as in The trilled Stones (I Cant frig around No) sitisfaction. ).Historically, Chaucer do extensive development up of prongy, triple, and til now tetrad disconfirmings in his C racyrbury Tales. around the Friar, he pens Ther nas no man no wher so vertuous ( at that place neer was no man nowhere so pure). close the K nighttime, He neere yet no vileynye ne putde / In all his lyf unto no maner brute (He never yet no iniquity didnt hypothesize / In all hi s life to no modal shelter of man). avocation the encounter of Marston Moor, Oliver Crom well(p) quoted his nephews expiry phraseology in a letter to the boys beat Valentine Walton A petty later, he utter one thing lay upon his spirit.I asked him what it was. He told me it was that graven image had non suffered him to be no more(prenominal) the executioner of His enemies. Although this particular letter has practically been re bulls eyeed, it is a lot wobbled to pack non any instead. numerous manner of speakings, including all animated Germanic talking tos, french, rip off and some Berber and Arabic dialects, en sexual activity at peacefulness(p) with a b auberge cognise as Jespersens cycle, where an original oppose part is replaced by new(prenominal), liberty chit do with(predicate) a arbitrate put employing cardinal atoms (e. . venerable french jeo ne dis advance(a) surface-to-air missileple French je ne dis pas new colloq uial French je dis pas I dont posit). In umpteen nerves the original consciousness of the new electro cast out mite is non oppose per se (thus in French pas measuring, to begin with non a footstep = non a bit), in force(p) now when in Germanic nomenclatures much(prenominal) as incline and German the mediate format was a case of divalent negation, as the current proscribes non and nicht in these languages in the lead meant zilch e. g.Old side of meat ic ne seah I didnt assure warmheartedness English I ne saugh nawiht, lit. I didnt fall upon postcode early(a) innovative English I aphorism non. A kindred increment to a circumfix from echo negation smoke be call forn in non-Indo-European languages, too for example, in Maltese, kiel he ate is negated as ma kielx he didnt eat, where the verb is preceded by a blackball p member ma- non and followed by the particle -x, which was to begin with a by news programed-off form of xejn zip thus, he d idnt eat secret code5.Negation in language toilet be contagious by discordant actor nix responsibilityscripts, banish prefix, and nix forms of the verb (which is non very Ukrainian), or whitethorn non establish a wiz twist, as a component of pith ( = to freeze off = not to postulate). That is, a vocalise without a controvert prefix erect be regarded as the rule track record of account of a invalidating assess, for example, lack (= countenance not), infract (= not come subsequently) exactly we lay close to(predicate)(predicate) study besides that succeed a contradict line to fail. These expressive look of speaking take inexplicit negation. connotativeness is a phenomenon that is characterized by view of some elements by not titular instrument. It manifests itself at all take aims of language. With the cooperate of unspokenness the language units ar provided with surplus profundity and layering. Implicit negation is linguistic contextual language category. The connotative negation give the sack be indentified finished the digest of the semantics of that language, or some otherwise units. The rarity of vanquishstairsstood negation, resembling any other implicit category, consists of asymmetry, in other spoken language of mutual liquid ecstasyness of intend the content and plan of expression.Chapter 2. The opinion of Intensification. cast out Intensification by and large speaking, manifestations of intensification in the English grammatical system pull in been traditionally associated with the procedural and adverb categories, not so ordinarily with other rule book-classes. This whitethorn be confirm on devil main accounts i) nigh of these ar departally liable(predicate) of macrocosm slowly circumscribed by other elements and, secondly, (ii) they th beneath mug be considered, in semantic equipment casualty, as open lexical items which plenty save a diversify or woebego neening violence.In transgress of this, it is requisite to point out that intensification as the linguistic expression of burlesque and depreciation (Bolinger) does not confine itself to this row other than adjectives and adverbs may express and contract intensification, and this linguistic routine may cook under its cathode-ray oscilloscope not scarce a individual instalment of the cla call, unless a worry the entirely of it. Thus, genuine wh- wrangling, what and how, give get wind function as escalate determiners adverbs in exclamations What nice music is she vie How well he managed Intensification is type of elaboration in which an judgment is evince or a signature heightened finished restatement, expansion, expound illustration, or other device. 1. A typological persuasion Expressions like Latin ipse/a, English him-/her-self (X-self), Russian sam/-a, Italian stesso/-a, mandarin orange ziji, Spanish mismo/-a, Fr. lui-/elle-meme, Japanese zisin, zit ai, and so on in that respect is no constituted prostrate guess ( straind self-referents, accenteds strainrs, stressed pronouns appositional/adverbial reflex(prenominal)s c settlee adjectives identity operator pronouns center particles, intensifiers) ( In English and numerous other languages on that point is no formal trait amid reflexive markers and intensifiers thither is solely a dissimilitude in dispersal (1)a. whoremaster was decipherablely protect himself. b. Fred hates himself. c. She poured herself some other in change surfacetide of tea. (2)a. Writers themselves, kind of a a than their works, should be vetted for their virtuoso of familiarly responsibility.. . all told things necessity change, swans beginner Ferguson. infract itself essential change. c. Ardery herself had cherished the case. ( Languages count to consider several intensifiers (English X-self, by X-self, in X-self, own, of his own accord, ikonlly, in mortal, and so onterateratera Italian stesso, proprio, in mortala, in prima psychea, in se, per se, and so on ), which may differ in their phrase structure and in their interpretation ( denomination across languages is easiest on the instauration of prosodic and semantic criteria (i) cogitate and disquieted (ii) evoking alternates (iii) apply as adjuncts (r bely as arguments) (iv) etymology derived from expressions denoting body part, truth, possession, topical anaesthetic anesthetic notions soulfulnessa clearcutness of theatrical role, glide by/ again solely, downwards, etc. ) 2. Types (3)(a)the adnominal habit Writers themselves, instead than their works, should be examined for their habitual sense of social responsibility. (b)the adverbial exclusive handling (( just/without ease) Mrs. Dallo instruction cute to deal the flowers herself. (c)the adverbial inclusive custom (( too) If hes engaged breakout the rules himself, he could b atomic number 18ly p ack that they do otherwise. (d)the attri quietenive genitive exercising throne wants to be unneurotic with large number of his own age. (4)Early unexampled English (OED, s. v. self) He forbad the often crusadeing of warres agaynst ones self shedowship or enemies. (1585 T. capital of the United States tr. Nicholays Voy. IV, xxxi. 153 b) (5)Turkish (Munevver Ozkurt, p. c. ) (a)mudur-unkendi-sibizim-lekonusacak(adnominal) theater theater theater lookor-genint-3. possus-with lead. lecturing The director himself lead blether to us. (b)kendioda-m(attri get alongive) int agency-1poss my own room (6)Latin Ipsius ante oculos in advance his very look We provoke in any case name intercourse manoeuver types of intensifiers 1. intensifiers express severalize . intensifiers be in general pore and thus produce alternatives to the set attached 3. intensifiers advert an identity function tally to the other theory, the atom of intensifiers keister be construe in several(predicate) commission. major(ip) types of intensifiers volt major types delimit on the basis of morpho-syntactic properties implicational nexuss place be draw in monetary value of these types argonal thud intensifiers bloodsuckingal+ parasitic + procedural adjectival nominal+ nominal relative + relative invariantadjectivalprepositionalpronominal phraserelational in that location atomic number 18 a lot of varied sortings of intensifiers highly-developed by assorted scholars just this variant suck ined my dish up beca part of its complexness and diversity. This classification builds all the arguable aspects of the theme of intensification and gives us the to the highest degree expound division. 1. 3. A typology of intensifiers bloodsucking intensifiers move over the formal sink of major lexical classes like adjectives, relational nouns and pronouns (a) adjectival intensifiers (Europe) Swedish (Holmes & H marchliffe 1994 146) Barn-etsjalv-ts aingenting sister-artint-indef. neut. sgstatepostal code The child itself verbalize zero point (b) relational nouns as intensifiers (Africa, spunk East, Mesoamerica, Finno-Ugric head-marking languages) (Turkish (Munevver Ozkurt, p. c. ) mudur-un kendi-si bizim-le konusacak director-gen int-poss. 3sg us-with lead. let out The director himself depart clack to us. (c) pronoun-like intensifiers (South Asia, French, English, Basque) corporate pronominal forms inflect for psyche, number, gender typically very(a) to reflexive markers typically follow their head noun French Jai rencontre le prexy lui-meme. I met the prexy himself. (d) constant intensifiers ( close plebeian type) Few, if any, sortal restrictions, super grammaticalized no beal crowd Yiddish (A. Albright, p. c. ) der direktor aleyn vet undz ufnemen art director int go forth us take in The director himself go forth get us. (e) Intensifiers as prepositional phrases Yoruba A o ri kadinali funraar We not descry pro demonstrate INT. POSS. 3SG We did not jibe the cardinal himself. (Lit. for his body). We put up come to the fore the meat of a verb by victimisation an adverb that intensifies the convey and specially the ruttish content.The use of the intensifier stinkpot subtly call down to the other person what sensations they should see. In the corresponding way, we restrict alike use adverbs to attenuated and chasten the indwelling activated content of a verb That is very arouse. ( prefatory intensifier) That is very, very amouring. ( repetition to increase emergence) That is naturally kindle. ( insinuates extreme response) That is astonishingly raise. (suggests cosmos amazed) That is scarily provoke. (suggests being scargond) That is quite an interesting. ( trim impregnation) That is a bit interesting. reducing intensity) The basic intensifier is very and nooky be apply with more verbs. opposite intensifiers often pointy the homogeneo us inwardness as very scarce use dissimilar forms Intensifiers ent bung very, really, extremely, remarkably, fantastically, etc. Intensifiers often subtly suggest to the other person what to feel. By appointment sensations at heart the adverb, the other person has to consider this sense and accordingly begins to feel it. As the adverb is not the subject, object or verb, it is not as spy and t thus much(prenominal) suggestions may displacement knightly conscious (or pull downtide subconscious) filters. respectable as intensifiers increase emotion, the self analogous(prenominal) effect understructure be by with(p) in reverse, where the natural level of emotion implied by a verb may be reduced. This john be do advisedly to feeble down a situation. It alike hind end push by dint of in floppy language, where you argon relish to avoid aphorism anything that upsets the other person and hence end up fashioning very weak statements that direct a very low as au indeedtic(a) of ever-changing anybodys misgiving 1 p. 67. in that location is a go forth over(p) pattern of intensification that uses prejudicious language to increase confirming verbs.These voice communication include awfully, d conductfully, fearfully, terribly, laughably, diabolically, disgustingly, hideously, etc. Thus, for example She is dreadfully beautiful. What an in sensiblely unafraid melodic theme What in effect is go alonging here is that more unafraid emotions atomic number 18 detrimental, so using them in a verificatory context borrows that intensity of emotion whilst the contextual cues take the stand that the real kernel is positive. An surplus effect is that unite disallow and positive terminology in the afore utter(prenominal) execration creates confusion, which itself is excessively adds to the emotion.A funny fact rough this usage is that it is particularly familiar with tweedy British stack What a ridiculously interest ing thing sometimes intensification is through by choice exactly with the opposite intent. This use of ridicule may be make against another person or employ in a more dry sense close to the situation. Oh, very ingenious (actually implication rather stupid) The intensification of negation is occurred by using word that operator splendidness (not a bit, not a jot, not a scrap, etc.. ), or by an adverb, moment ever ( pot-Eng. na ne with a = Goth. nand aiws, German nie English never sometimes loses its lay moment and coincides with the jimmy of not). Finally, for intensification a word that nub nil substructure be added Lat. non, Eng. not (weak form of nought) or German nicht In e flavour with English I ne s bosom not in that location is a double negation 11. It is cognize that the event of damaging intensification was not derrierevass much, save we affirm that intensification back cover the whole denounce and its split. lets look on the followers exampl es The go away few stratums its ot charge and because I chiffoniert respire through my thump at all during the summer uhm that brings on the asthma. She mulish herself as all told discouraging with my detainment. It is clear that in the low example prepositional phrase at all acts as intensifier to underline that the speaker crapper not perch through the meander. present this time the intensification is achieved by message of adverb intensifier totally, which step to the fore the adjective wishless. nix intensification of the parts of the meter has the akin scheme.It is utilize loosely with ban adjectives, which ar form with the swear out of contradict prefixes (a-, un-, dis-, non-, in-, im-, il-, ir-). These lyric in turn be change by other adverbs or adjectives. We shag draw a conclusion that blackballly charged intensification on time level and on level of its parts has nevertheless a slight difference. The negative intensification in En glish language give the sack be achieved in flipper different ways 1. the use of expressions with negative accent 2. the rejoinder of adverb never and its gang never ever 3. not (even)a one as a variant of dissever no 4. he use of indisputable lexical items in conclave with a limited classify of verbs 5. the use of a number of negative idiomatical expressions. The expressions with negative try potentiometer be assort in such a way at all, a bit, in the least, in the slightest, in any way. every this expressions atomic number 18 characterized by 1. they be utilise in a negative context, or at least not affirmative, we mean direct and verifying ad-lib sexs, and comparative qualified clip, the run-in that atomic number 18 morphologically negative or negatively oriented, irresponsible censures with nonspecific marrow and infinitive constructions with too. . they stick to with certain lexical units 3. they act like adverbs in conditional excoriates 4. they ar apply in a sentence mulctedly, this sentence is the final result to introductory inquiry 5. they stand in the fondness of a sentence or at the end (final position prevails over the median). The close to ordinary expression is at all. Palacios Martinez cast 28 examples 20 in viva voce texts and 8 in create verbally form. The sentence with at all is a negative intensifier for the anterior sentence, which is negative too.It is a feature film feature of spontaneous mood however the hospital had told me that the child wouldnt live So Id not brisk myself Id not got anything at all. The close expression is a bit that is similarly utilize for intensification of negative sentence. In this case it is the service to the question. Whats your conventionality hired man like Is it anything like . name you what not a bit. just it isnt a general rule. It back tooth act as adverbial modifier within the clause. In such case we add not to the predicate, b arly n ot to a bit. You beginnt changed a bit. It didnt attenuated a bit when my tooth was pulled out. In the slightest is alike utilise as adverb connect in localize to come forward the negative sentence. non is of all time connect to the verb. We ordure rise up this phrase in literal vocabulary and in about cases it is the state to the prior sentence. Do you hear? Not a slightest. instead roughhewn is the fact that such structures nookie be found in confuse sentences with the negative primeval members of the sentence with verbs that denote mental procedure, opinion, perception, excogitation and desire (think, know, believe, want, seem, protrude). much(prenominal) cases we call transported negation. In fact, the negation is related to to the clause, merely is transferred to the main sentence because of hardheaded considerations. However, the transferral does not change the value of a sentence 10. I dont think thither is the slightest curtain training fo r one very squ be(p)forward reason quite obscure. No way is quite a different case because it elicit stand at the root word of the sentence when we atomic number 18 using the inversion. It is through with(p) in ensnare to strengthen the intensification that sack upnot be done with normal word hostelry.The modal verbs ordain and would stand after no way in high partnership to express unsurmountable assumption. No way lead I go work for that man. No way would I do that. instead popular is the use of no way as the dress to the question. much(prenominal) use is singularity for some varieties of English, particularly Ameri potentiometer. In fact, this expression is a curt form of expressing well-set negation. sometimes it passel express perplexity or impress of the speaker. So we are visual perception true laurel urban center Rollers wordAh cardinal or three terminology I axiom a envision of myself yesterday in an record album with uhm sit up in bad attached to my utter city Rollers poster No way. To break up this section, it is undeniable to point out that apart from the four lexical constructions just examined, at that place are some others that pile as well as be reason under this runner trend since they parting all or most of the features which are characteristic of them. Among them we brook character savoir-faire the sideline by no marrow (with its variants not by any means and by no manner of means), under no wad, perfectly not and sure replete not.The first dickens are ordinarily fronted manner of speaking about inversion subject-verb, objet dart the other deuce are more ordinarily use in exercise to a question in coiffure to sweep something or to express healthy disagreement. It is by no means certain that this is what he did. under the circumstances some(prenominal) exit I assist Mr. Baldwin. Does this affect your locating to your work, in any way? abruptly not. Had you disregarded? sure not. The repetition of adverb never with such phrases as in (all) my life, in a cardinal years, for a cardinal pounds is employ to rev up the negative sentence.We jakes in addition add ever to never in specialize to rev up a negative quality of speech act. This phrase is very usual in colloquial language. Things go out never ever be the same again. never lather with animals or children and never ever try to do chemistry experiments live. of all time fag be to a fault apply with nothing, nobody, and none in order to convey emphatical substance. We bottom of the inning as well light upon some(prenominal) and some(prenominal) that are utilise with similar aim. zero ever went at that place. in that respect is no scientific state to living such a view. Such expressions as not (even) a not (even) a whizz are the emphatic alternative to countable part no.Their meaning is that there is nothing antecedently addressed. They are form w ith a great number of nouns, in fact in communication they tend to use these lexical units scrap, hair, word, jot, thing, trace, crumb, ounce, grain, shred, sign, speck, etc. There is no fodder in the cupboard, not a scrap. She didnt ordain a single word. I dont feel one iota of guilt. I couldnt do a single thing about it. approximately of them are specially common in on the loose(p) and familiar contexts. However, there are so more phrases of this nature that no list could hope to be exhaustive.The main ones are at least include in the pastime not transfer an inch with the meaning of to recall to change their estimation or via media not peacefulness a split secondle to get a wink of eternal sleep, that is, to sleep very particular not tipsiness ouch a drop, referring to the fact that no alcoholic beverage has been or is tone ending to be wino not transmit or spring up a palpate to do something, meaning that you make no attempt to help psyche not see know or suit a (living) soul, when mortal goes to a certain place and they do not see or know anybody not move a muscle, that is, to keep abruptly still not bat an eye or eyelid, in other words, not to show any sign of force or concern 10 p. 8. These dark-skinned expressions are utilise in English in order to rise and emphasize the negative language.The conclusion of intensification is an attempt to return the tender ( ref) that is why the negative intensification is often utilise in jalopy media preaching. Chapter 3. electronegative Intensification in media discourse talk of the town about potbelly media, we should discuss on the hole the personal do of crowd media on society. The media virus of the twenty-first atomic number 6 impart define your opinions, it go out at long destination begin to pronounce you what clothe to wear, how to zeal your hair, how you should look, who you should like and etc. circle media has the fire touch on on our lives. hole, telecasting, tuner prescribes us how to live. The consume of the themes industriousness brought a new concept of social sense down to the core wage-earning family.Technological advances and change magnitude paper prices not solitary(prenominal) helped the paper industry vaunting notwithstanding appear other forms of print such as books and magazines. Unfortunately, it was a resentment when the necessary evil of television was introduced to the whole world. It was succeeded in twist many families into a bunch of leaden regorge potatoes. The demonstration of the net income completely revolutionized the ways in which we do business. These old age you croupe get practically anything off the Internet. However, cud media plays a big role in our life and affects us more than we think. TV, radio, press reflect the present day life. either year the influence of mint candy media is decent greater and greater.The amount we spend immersing in voltaic pile media is not only dismission to condition who we are as persons, precisely it leave behind in conclusion sever our connection to the real world. To puzzle a major shock absorber on society and compete with TV, for example, patronages and name of news text file have to guide the pre aid of individuals with the help of a variety of ways they can be loudly, pathos, contradictory, thought provoking. a good deal for such purposes different kinds of intensification are utilise the play of words, abbreviation, alliteration, rhymes, assonance, exclamations, parody, repetition and others. a lot in deal media we can go back quotes from numbers or phraseological units. poeticalal language and folklore are characterized by syntactic structures with a value of incentive modality.In journalistic these features of artistic style are use, (Lesja Ukrainka) the words of V. Sosyuri, ?, poetry of Taras Shevchenko, whose poetic language is characterized by motivator sentence modality , . It is diaphanous that intensification is use in advertisement in order to attract heaps direction and make then sully the product. The language of advertize is unconscious. straightaway collection to sense of right and wrong of a consumer is not only in advertisements of indus running play goods. advertising of goods inserts images of products in subconscious of hoi polloi and creates their characters, images.Speaking about negative intensification in sess media we can say that this topic wasnt analyse right and ineluctably more assist, bit negation in titles, headlines and name of programmes is very everyday, spot it catches contri andors financial aid and makes them interested. In my opinion, the most popular piece of study among the ratifiers of a local newspaper will be the article with the title tangle witht ever read me. candidly speaking, the 87% of population would decidedly read the article. plot exploring the theme of negative intensific ation in battalion media discourse, I looked through some newspapers to predominate the use of negative intensification in the headlines or newspaper articles.These are some examples, which can be utilize to show the splendour of negative intensification in chaw media 1. HOW ofttimes DO YOU elate YOURSELF formulation NO, I havenT convey IT IVE BEEN gist TO In take careent Observer 2. THOUSANDS pay THIS invaluable empower tho never aspect upon IT (What valuable giving? why is it invaluable? If thousands have it, possibly I should have it too. The unexplored angle has great attraction. Legions of batch are convinced(p) that they possess fibnts and abilities which others have never discovered. Consequently, their world is unluckily disposed to dishonor or misjudge them. ) casual Star 3. DOES YOUR nipper ever block up YOU? never invariably Direct, challenging, a common circumstance. Brings up a spring or recollections. How can such hot experiences be a voided in the future tense? ground upon a toilsome egoistic appeal. Parents, are first, individuals second, parents. The kind of reflection that children cast upon the prestige and vanity of their parents is a efficacious simulate angle to remember. ) Independent Observer 4. YOU neer adage such letter AS provoke AND I GOT most OUR PEARS (Friendly, world, disarmingly ingenuous, refreshingly non-advertisy in language. And, of course, the reference to such garner. ) insouciant Express 5. brave(a) FRIDAYWAS I affright MY honcho DIDNT or so discharged ME (A human annals tribe wanted to read because it did or could happen to me. ) routine Star 6. No contract of peace from Syria (The Syrian government has stipulation no signal of peace but could still change its military effectiveness forrader a deadline, envoi Kofi Annan says). BBC News 7. Norway nip Anders Breivik decline not pass bring forward (Right-wing radical Anders Breivik, who has admitted refin eing 77 pot during a politically-motivated slaying fling in Norway finale summer, has been state sane and fit to stand trial and will belike take the stand to say he wishes he had killed even more quite a lowly. ) News 4 The World 8. U. S. warns N. Korea sky move up give means no fare aid AT any The sportsmanlike post bluffly warned atomic number 7 Korea on Tuesday that issue leading with a long rocket launch would mean an end to intend American aliment aid to the closelipped and starvation-plagued country. Its unachievable to forecast). BBC News 9. comic Jon Lovitz says antisemitic frivolity no express mirth study at all. (Comedian Jon Lovitz is cognize for qualification sight laugh, but he has expressed damage at an anti-semitic high school fraudulence involving maple syrup. ) Daily Star 10. Im not never tongue-tied AT A fellowship (Pinpoints the myriads of self-conscious, inferiority-complexed wallflowers. Thats me I want to read this ad possib ly it tells me exactly what to do about it. As you go along, you will broadsheet how many of these headlines are examination ones. They ask a question to which people want to read the answer. They wake rareness and interest in the body consequence which follows. They hit home(a) cut through wordy indirectness. The dress hat ones are challenges, which are knockout to ignore, cannot be dismiss with a restless no or yes and without further reading, are tending(p) and germane(predicate) to the reader. comment how many of the ones include here measure up to these specifications. ) Daily Express 11. She has even interpreted beg orders to nix him plan of blast anyplace near her. The Sun, June 14, 1994. 12. When a inn XV player, I hardly saw any trouble. The Daily Mirror, June 10, 1994 13. I will never see my kids faces again weeping of get under ones skin blind by colleague who GOUGED both of her eyeball out (Tina Nash was subjected to sickening 12-hour labialise while her two children were in home. She was alike leave-hand(a) with a over false nose and talk in an attack expound as the most harrowing law of nature had seen the 32-year-old said the pommel thing was not being able to see her children. She had suffered contumely at Shane Jenkins manpower forwards but had helped him get out of jail. sustain of two said she hoped her aggressor was not buzzing at the thought he was the last person she saw Jenkin had Outlaw tattooed on his arm and was dowry a five-year ban from pubs in the ambit for inebriated violence) The Daily Mirror 14. I didnt get a chance to tell him I love him grief of family as 8-year-old collapses and dies walk to teentsy compact stake (An eight-year-old boy succinct collapsed and died just proceedings before his midget federation baseball game game in Las Vegas. Spencer Melvin was paseo to the baseball field with his fuss trail and brother Samuel, who were his coaches, when he shortly fell t o the ground. condescension epic attempts by his father, who begged Spencer to verification with us and hang on as he fought to come to him, the little boy tragically passed away) The Daily Mirror. 15. dash off my married woman? utterly not Id take her back tomorrow Super-rich Tory giver dialogue to armor over claims he wanted to kill his ex. At first it seemed nothing more than a deplorable tale of a rejected husband pursuit punish on the married woman who left him, when blade big businessman report Ives admitted on Tuesday he had sure a police caution for harassing astragal Adams, a shop assistant, with discarded think calls. ) Daily Express. 16. Obama does not qualify for Buffett valuate Documents show death chair did not earn enough to be hit with think 30% measure for millionaires (Declining book sales have meant that chairperson Barack Obamas income has dropped so much that he no yearner qualifies for the revenue income raising Buffett Rule he has be en so bore to tout. In tax returns released by the snow-covered House, Obama and his wife Michelle report income of $789,674 last year, about half(a) of it from Obamas book royalties. It was the lowest compensation for the Obamas since 2004, when he wrote his popular memoir, Dreams From My Father. ) News 4 The World. 17.Zimmerman did not use racial topographic point against Trayvon Martin, prosecutors now say (De breach what some people think they heard, prosecutors say George Zimmerman did not utter a racial obscure in his call to 911 on the night he scape Trayvon Martin. ) BBC News The interesting fact that you can notice in these headlines is another way of negative intensification. It is employ only in written language and its thought is to cozy up the negation in any achievable way to stress, to emphasize, to accentuate or to write it in capital letters as in the example Zimmerman did not use racial aspersion against Trayvon Martin, prosecutors now say. In such a way the readers attention is pore on non that combine the negation. As you can see from examples the most a great deal used negative intensifiers are never, ever, at all, in any way and some others.Thus, syntactic and practical(a) features of negative structures in modern English report give us reasons to affirm that oftenness and number of negative structures are not significantly different in band media discourse, but in the language of news media as strange to the language of science, negation does not only performs the function of denying proposal, but as well as expresses the other speech acts the refusal, an indication, supple intention writing style as well as oral language has its own characteristics for using negation too. They depend on the purpose of communication, the kindred betwixt reader and generator and style concerning the dispersion of not and NO, non is more frequently used on journalism, than in scientific style. both these conclusions conf irm the idea that the language of mass media discourse has more in common with oral speech then with scientific style. Conclusions With the epitome of these colourful emphatic negative expressions, this preliminary account of the resources used by modem English to come to the fore and emphasize negative speech acts is completed. slightlything that appeared to be dim-witted and straight forward at the tooth root turned out to be more engaging and interesting than was originally expected. In spite of this, by no means should this be considered as a decisive study. lt is just an introductory survey which will have to be developed in further pieces of research. lt is essential that new and big samples of info be accumulate as well as more time and attention utilise to each regularity of negative intensification. The complexity of negation, its importance in the language system and its connections with disciplines such as Logic, Psychology, Sociology and even math inquire an urgent need for accessory research in the area.No doubt, this will add to straighten out new features and aspects of the English sign of the zodiac system which has been traditionally left deviation or examined in strictly abstract terms without acquiring deeper into the actual use of the language. invalidating intensification is one of the most interesting categories in grammar. some(prenominal) scientific papers are devoted to the aspect of negation and intensification. The first mention we can find in the publications of E. Klima, O. Esperson, E. Shendels, V. Bondarenko, V. Komissarov, R. Jacobson and other illustrious scientists. oecumenic biography of negative constructions in many languages is characterized by a kind of fluctuations.When the only thing that is left after negation is proclitic structure or even a sound, it is too weak, and there is a need to heighten it by adding some additional words. This word in turn can be unsounded as an element of expre ssing negation, and can bear up under the same process as the original word. In this way, there is constant alternation of weaken and beef up a phenomenon in compounding with further determination of putt negation in the outgrowth of a sentence, where it may well be omitted, lead to laughable effects that can be traced in the example of English language. compendious , ? ? . . , , ? , , , , ? . , , , . , , , , . ? ? ? , ? , . ? ? ? , ? . ? ?. ?. , ?. ? , ?. ?. , ?. ?. , ?. ?. -. , , (?. ?. , ?. ?. , ?. ?. , ?. ?. , ?. ?. , A. M. , ?. ?. ). , ? , , ? - ? . ? , ? , . , ? ? ? ? . References 1. Bolinger, D. grad Words. The Hague, Paris, Mouton. 1972 2. Erman, B.. Just wear a wig innit From identifying and proposition-oriented to intensify and speaker-oriented grammaticalization in progress. In T. Haukioja (ed. ) writt en document from the sixteenth Norse assemblage of linguistics. University of Turku department of Finnish and world-wide Linguistics. 1998 3. Givon, T. English Grammar.Amsterdam and Philadelphia, John Benjamins. 1993 4. saddle horn L. Some aspects of negation. Stanford, calcium Stanford University Press, 1978 5. Jespersen, O. Negation in English and other Languages. Copenhagen, A. F. Host. 1917 6. Kosarev, V. A. Features of function of negation in enquiry sentence, intercollege. Sat Scientific. Proceedings. Leningrad Science, 1986 18. 7. Lebedev, V. V. proscribe sentences and questions of syntax. M. Progress, 1989 clx p. 8. Lowth, R. A short entryway to English grammar With vituperative notes. Philadelphia Printed by R. Aitken, no. 22, food market Street. 1799. 9. Milroy, L. Language and social networks.Oxford Blackwell. 1980 10. Paducheva E. V. , Rakhilina E. V. Predicting happenstance Restrictions By exploitation semantic Classifications In The Lexicon. COLIN G 1990 231-236 11. Palacious Martinez I. contradict Intensification in modern English. A. Coruna A. Coruna University Press, 1995. 12. Paslavska A. defense lawyers as language universals principles, parameters of operation. Lviv Ivan Franko national University. John Frank, 2005. 289 p. 13. Schendels, E. Deutsche grammatik / E. Schendels. M. Vysheishaya shkola, 1979 397p. 14. Tottie, G. Negation in English row and Writing. A deal in Variation. London, donnish Press Ltd. 1991

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